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To begin our discussion, we need to define what failed and collapsed states are and if there are any factors that cause states to collapse or dysfunction. However, there is not one single definition often commentators define failed state in opposition to the successful states that are presumed to be the norm (Brooks, 2005). Brooks’ definition reads as:

“Failed states, their dark mirror image, lose control over the means of violence and cannot create peace or stability for their populations or control their territories. They cannot ensure economic growth or any reasonable distribution of social goods. They are often characterised by massive economic inequities, worlordism, and violent competition for resources” Brooks (2005).

In similar definition but distinct according to Rotberg as cited elsewhere (Kraxbereger, 2007) notes, state collapse is serious than the failed states and is the end of the process. Rotberg argues that a collapsed state is a rare and extreme version of a failed state. One can suggest from this, there are somehow set of stages that states undergo before they reach the extreme version. Rotberg offers a fuller continuum of stateness  that runs from high to low as follows: “weak states-failing state-failed states-collapsed states.”

These definitions have asserted all we need to know from what failed and collapsed state situation would look like. This gives us the opportunity to further our discussion and use these definitions as a frame work for our discussion through out the paper. But, the definition did not give us the causes and the roots of the problem. We therefore need to explore what can put states in such dire circumstance. In the same paper, Brooks postulates some of the causes of state failure pointing out there are indeed a wide range of humanitarian, legal and security problems. This means that there pre conditions that states find themselves prior to suffer and collapse. In Southern world most states are relevantly poor and have humanitarian and security problem anyway. The enforcement of law is not also that strong due to many reasons. The fact that most of Southern states are in the first place poor and depend on foreign assistance can push them to fall in the weak category which nears them to the edge of becoming failed. Some of the recent examples that are familiar are Somalia and the total collapse of its institutions, the disintegration of former Yugoslavia, Rwanda, Haiti, Liberia, Congo and Afghanistan (Brooks, 2005). These states are different in nature due to their particularities and circumstances; their political structure and their position in both regional and global level.

In the case of Somalia as we are going to discuss is different and unique. Therefore in the coming section, closer look will be given not only how Somalia have collapsed, but also why it took so long to rebuild the  nation back and why international community were so careless about Somalia as many believe. I say here international community, because as Berger points (2006) nation building (or state building is being defined as an externally driven, or facilitated. In the case of Somalia nation or state building is long awaited. This is not to say that international community did not intervene in Somalia; they indeed did, but for different reasons. To understand more about Somalia, we need to revisit the history of Somalia from the early stages.

Somalia also formerly known as Somali Democratic Republic (SDR) is a country located in the horn of Africa. It is bordered by Djibouti to the northwest, Kenya on its southwest, the Gulf of Aden with Yemen on its north, the Indian Ocean at its east, and Ethiopia to the west. SDR was the formation of Italian Somaliland and British Somaliland after independence. Somaliland in the North got its independence from Britain on June 26th whereas Italian Somaliland was awarded four dates later. In July the 1st South and North Somalia has united and formed Somali Democratic Republic. . This unification of two Somali territories colonised by Britain and Italy was not easy solution to the Somali national identity and prompted challenges to the newly formed independent state. Three other Somali territories mainly inhabited by Somalis lied outside of Somali Democratic Republic borders which the new government regarded parts of its country (Tauris, 1996). The issue here seemed as Tauris (1996) asserts that Somalis were “Inefficiently united”, since three of Somali inhabited territories lay outside of its postcolonial boundaries.  These three territories are Djibouti, Ogaden region in Ethiopia and Northern District Frontier (NFD) in Kenya.

Somalis who found themselves in the newly independent state with their government’s support led to the pursuit of struggle for the incorporation of the Somali inhabited territories. Obsessive culmination of Somali nationalism was symbolised in the five stars on the flag of the newly independent state (Tauris 1996). The formation of the new state and how international community divided Somalia into five territories in Berlin Conference  in 1884 become one of the main problem of Somalia and its people which become the permanent mystery of Somalis. When later North and South of Somalia joined and formed the new SDR, hopes and dreams of greater Somalia was revived but never happened. Other Somalis outside of the new independent state boundaries also wanted to become part of greater Somalia. 

Civilian government survived for nine years in the Somali Republic. It has been noted by many observers that Somalia was one of the few African states which had peaceful elections followed by no violent power transfer based on results D(1976, pp, 451). The civilian government allowed relative press freedom with regular anti government publications with no or few interruptions. As a result of smooth democratic process of the new independent state, some western scholars considered Somalia as an emerging democratic and stable state. Before I continue to talk about the military government that replaced the civilian one, it is important to explore some of the unique features of Somalia and its politics. While we are discussing these unique patterns of the country and its particularities, we need to have in mind how these patterns helped Somalia to become exemplary for Africa, and further more if we can foresee any shortcomings from such process.

First, unlike other African states Somalia was ahead of the game in forming the new independent state. According to Laitin, D (1976) Somali was a nation before it becomes a state. They share a common language (Somali of the Cushitic group), a common religion (Islam), a common culture (Xeer, or political contract, and other institutions. In the early 1960s when other African states were looking strategies to nation building –the creation of new identity consistence with their former colonial boundaries, Somalia could engage in state building or enhancing the political control of the new structure.  Second, the five pointed star on the Somali nation flag was also unique in Somali case. Each of the star corners represents one of the five territories of Somalia. Two of them united, but still three were put outside of Somali territory. One of these territories is Ogaden region in Ethiopia. Somalia and Ethiopia have had fights over the disputed boarder. Ogaden region has been under Italy and British protectorate for short period of time. But there are another important history attached to this particular region. From 1900-1921, Sayid Mohamed Abdille Hassan known as Mad Mullah by the British who fought against the colonial powers and led what is known Dervish movement was from Ogaden region. Mr Hassan has fought against Britain, Italy, French and Ethiopia. According to David Laitin (1979, p,96) who wrote extensively about Somalia  and worked in Somalia asserts that Mr Hassan was considered  as the father of Somali nationalism. In 1920British aircraft mercilessly bombarded his main stronghold in Eastern part of Somalia and defeated Dervish movement.

 I mentioned Dervish movement with particular attention here. First the leader of this movement was from Ogaden region which later become part of Ethiopia, secondly, Somali government recognised Mr Hassan as the father of the nation and indeed erected a historic monument in the centre of the capital city Mogadishu as a symbol of heroic and nationalism. For Somalis, Hassan fought to keep colonisers out of the greater Somalia not particularly Ogaden desert, but others too. It is therefore true to say that Somali nationalists had already fought against Ethiopia, leaving the European aside as they left. Ethiopia and Somalia before and after the independence had never been friends. Soon when the Republic was formed in the 1960s, the discussion of getting Ogaden region back was underway in the high ranking positions of the civilian government. In 1964, Somalia supported and armed separatists group from Ogaden to attack Ethiopian positions in Ogaden. From that date Ogaden region have never been at peace and there are always separatist groups fighting against Ethiopia government troops, but very law level. This and among many other reasons, Ethiopia had stood firm to destroy Somalia by any means. Although Kenya had also Somali inhabited region under its control, the situation between Somalia and Kenya never been the same.  The relationship between Somalia and Ethiopia got even worse when a senior army officer, Mohamed Siyaad Barre staged a bloodless coup October 1969 and ended the civil government that was elected by the people. It is believed that USSR officers who were in the country advised Siyaad Barre to replace the civilian government. At the time corruption, nepotism and clan led interest ruined the reputation of the government and that is why many Somalis justified the coup.

However, this is not my intention now, but I want to move on how Siyaad handled the burning issue of greater Somalia. Siad Barre was very serious about the great Somalia to the extent that Somalia troops supporting Western Liberation Movement Front (WSLF) invaded Ethiopia in 1977. This becomes what is known ‘Ogaden War’ which many believe was the main reason that led Somalia to collapse. In the run up to the war, Siyaad mistakenly thought that USSR will continue to provide with armaments, but USSR have decided otherwise and assisted Ethiopia instead.  Moscow had worked out military agreement with Ethiopia and soon after , USSR advisers began to leave Somalia, many of them going directly to Ethiopia Laitin, D( 1979. p,99). In the mid of high tension between the two countries, Moscow has delivered MIG-23 to Addisababa. This was very critical moment for Siyaad and Somalia. According to Laitin(1979, p101), Somali dignity and pride were seared. USSR have turned against Siyaad and supported Ethiopia instead in the time of need. Although Somali troops have gained more than 75% of Ogaden in a very short time, Somalia was defeated. The collapse of Somalia was underway from then on. Ethiopia had the power to even pursue Somali troops into Somalia. It is very interesting to mention here that Ethiopian MIG-23 have bombarded Somali villages in June and July in 1978. I say this interestingly, because again, in 2007, Ethiopian warplanes with support of USA this time have hit targets in the southern part of Somalia.

History repeats itself as they say, but one can argue that Ethiopia and Somalia have been fierce enemies for a longer time. But the power and the upper hand belonged to the one who gets the support of others. Thus, Somalia suffered more from international super powers than it suffered from its neighbouring enemy. The new Somalia started from being weak state and soon fallen into the ‘failing and failed’ categories. Before we reach the collapse of the state, I need to mention at least four main points that may have exacerbated Somalia’s makings into destitution; first, the partition of Somali people by European colony. To fortify this point, Salih, A & Wohlgemuth(1994) argue that Somali crisis is rooted in the Somali colonial past and post-colonial mismanagement of state and society. Secondly, Somalia as a nation had no one colony but had several and had to match different interests and expectations to please its former colonies. Thirdly, there were already hostility and grudges between Somalia and Ethiopia that have shaped their later relationship and finally, the international community attention to Somalia in terms of support and assistance when needed. These four factors can be seen the curse of Somalia and were the causes of Somalia’s collapse in the end.  These factors have had long time impact and still pose real challenges to socio and political structure of Somalia.  Let us know discuss the collapse of Somalia and how external forces reacted to revive and reconstruct. Revival and reconstruction school being the most influential framework for assessing failed and collapsed states (Kraxberger, 2006, p, 1060).

Somalia has been without an affective central government since 1991 when President Siyaad Barre was ousted. In almost 17 years today, Somalia has been the prime example of ‘Failed State’. As I write now, fights continue in Somalia and as a result thousands of civilians are killed, wounded or internally displaced and there is less attention from the international community.  Since the collapse of Somalia, million lives were lost in the fight mostly civilian. Another hundred thousands were internally displaced and live under dire circumstance. Millions have fled the country and sought peace somewhere else especially in the neighbouring countries. Almost more one million Somalis are believed to have claimed asylum in the western countries and Australia. In UK alone, the estimation of Somalis although hard to prove is around 250 thousand people. Somalia crisis and the human loss was unimaginable during 1991-1992 to the extent that Ibrahim Mustapha, an official from Somali NGO called this period ‘ the grave of our people’ when death toll in some places for example Bardere in the South reached 385 death per day mainly caused by famine an draught (Predergast, J. 1994). The UN world Food Programme has reported that one-half of the people of south central part of Somalia (500,000) had perished by December 1992. Several scholars have written about Somalia tragedy including John Predergast(1994) his famous article titled “ The forgotten Agenda in Somalia. Despite Somalia’s destitute situation after the collapse of military regime, Ethiopia entered a season of political ferment (Markakis, 1994). Ethiopia should do what is necessary for its strategy and have ceased the opportunity. On the same writing, Markakis noted how important was for Ethiopia to see Somalia’s failure. For Ethiopia he points, Somalia’s collapse was the defeat of forces that have dominated Ethiopia throughout 20th century. 

Although Somalis were dying in hundreds per day, the flow of arms into the country was not in short supply. In response to the crisis and the follow of arms UN Security Council have unanimously passed 733 resolution calling total arms embargo and complete ceasefire, but did not change the situation. Thanks to the international media outlets that have pressed international community to respond the crisis. As a result United Nations Operations in Somalia (UNISOM) was put in place to ensure that supply of the food reaches the neediest. UNISOM led by America has stayed for three years and halted the hunger crisis and provided relative security in their stationed area mainly in the cities. No attempts have been made in the restructuring the state, but rather American troops have decided to capture one of strongest warlord in Somalia Mohamed Farah Aided. As a result fight between UNISOM troops mainly Americans and Somali militias broke out which again claimed thousand lives. 18 American soldiers were killed and angry civilians have dragged the corps of the soldiers in Mogadishu streets, which again hit international media headlines. This has again forced America to withdraw from Somalia. From there on, International community led by America has taken back seat but remain active in Somali affairs through Ethiopia and other regional states. Local business men started to arm and train own militia in order to create security in their neighbourhood using religious men. The militia have started patrolling and provided relative security. The model become popular and has been duplicated in different parts of Mogadishu. Business men and most of Islamic leaders adopted the model and imposed Sharia law in their area.  In response to this and may be other reasons, America’s CIA was believed to have supported and funded war lords who have terrorised the population for the last 17 years. As part of war on terror, America has funded these war lords to combat terrorism in Somalia. Alliance for the Restoration of Peace and Counter-Terrorism ARPCT was formed. This alliance was mainly criminals who should be taken to international tribune to account for their actions and causing thousands of civilian deaths. Surprisingly, Liberal Americans who ought to promote justice and democracy were funding warlords. For America this was part of International agenda of ‘war on terror’ and it was American agenda, giving no attention to Somalia’s state’s quo and its suffering civilians. Fierce fight broke out between the Islamic courts and CIA funded warlords. Mogadishu population was quick to join the fight and drove warlords out of Mogadishu for the first time.

5th of June 2006 Islamic Courts have announced that they are in control of Mogadishu and surrounding area. People were relieved and witnessed a relative peace and stability in the capital city. For six months that Islamic Courts, southern part of Somalia including the capital city has seen peace for the first time after the collapse. Thousands of Somalis in the Diaspora went back to invest or take part Somalia reconstruction. In July 15th Islamic Courts have opened Mogadishu Airport for first time after the UNISOM in 1995. August 25th, Mogadishu sea port was opened for the first time in 17 years. On top of that Islamic courts have ended Somali pirates in Somalia water highways capturing their strong hold Harardere Oct 25th,    which lies 500KM, North West of the capital. The hope of Somali people quickly fall under threat from Ethiopia again. Ethiopia was very quick to warn that Taliban like state is born in the horn of Africa and urged international community to act. The war of words started between Islamic courts and Ethiopian diplomats. Ethiopian troops who were stationed in the country were readied to attack and thousands of others were on their way to attack Islamic Courts. Ethiopian warplanes bombarded Mogadishu airports and other Islamic Court positions in the south. American warships were ready to hit targets in Somalia supporting Ethiopian troops. American warships hit target intensely in the southern tip of Somalia alleging that they were after three Al-Qaeda fugitives who masterminded bombing USA embassies in the horn of Africa in 1998. Islamic Courts were defeated by Ethiopian troops supported by American. The latest USA bombing happened in March on Dobley village at the Kenyan Boarder killing civilians including children.

Again Somali people were on the run to seek saver place. Hundreds of thousands have fled the fighting and sought refugee in neighbouring countries. 500, 000 are believed to have been internally displaced. Islamic Courts vowed to resist Ethiopian occupation and kept their word. There are daily attacks on Ethiopian troops and civilians are caught in the middle. When some African countries caught in crisis, international community was ready to advise, mediate or intervene. To mention two cases-  In recent Kenyan election crisis international community was quick to intervene and broke deal between the two parties. In Chad crisis French was quick to help Chad government, but unfortunately for 17 years, Somalia case is different.

In conclusion, Somalia have been absent from international scene for almost 17 years and unfortunately there is no real attempts from the international community to rebuild the nation at least for the time being  . For the above mentioned factors and may be more have impacted Somalia’s position as a state. The post 9/11 era has also faded any hope that Somalia had to get out of the mess. Ethiopia will do all it can to dominate Somalia and to keep Somalia as fragile and weak as possible. International community have always listened and supported Ethiopia when the two need a referee. As noted above superpowers have often taken the opposite view of Somalia. European and UN roles were focused in humanitarian but have yet to start rebuilding the state. The degree of hypocrisy of international community towards Somalia’s politics is to blame.  The final question is if there will ever be a genuine attempt to reconstruct Somalia from international community especially America and its allies including the UN. 

Ahmed Abdi (Wareerey)

BA (Hons) in International Relations and Economics

Email:[email protected]

References

Books:

Chomsky, N.(2006). Failed States; The Abuse of Power and The Assault on Democracy; London, Penguin Books Limited,

Dickson, M.(1996). Mind of Black Africa:  London, Green Wood Publishing Group

Woodward, P.(1996). Horn of Africa: Politics and International Relations: GBR:I. B Tauris & Company Limited.

Journal articles

Brooks, R(2005). Failed States, or the State as Failure?: The University of Chicago Law Review, 72(4), 1159-1196.

Doornbos, M(2002). State Collapse and Fresh Starts: Development and Change, 33(5), 810-815.

Doorbnos, M & Markakis, J(1994): Society and State in Crisis: What went Wrong in Somalia. Review of African Political Economy,  59(21), 82-87.

Cooper, N(2002), State Collapse as Business: The Role of Conflict Trade and the Emerging Control Agenda: Development and Change,  33(5), 935-955.

Kraxberger, B.(2007). Failed States: temporary obstacles to democratic diffusion or fundamental holes in the world political map: Third world Quarterly, 28(6), 1055-1071.

Laitin, D(1976). The political Economy of Military Rule in Somalia: Journal of Modern African Studies,14(3), 449-468.

Laitin, D.(1979). The War in the Ogaden: Implications for Siyaad Role in Somali History: The Journal of Modern African Studies, 17(1), 95-115.

Markakis, J (1994).  Somalia in the New Political Order of Ethiopia: Review of African Political Economy.  59(21), 71-78.

Prendergast, J(1994) The Forgotten Agenda in Somalia: Review of African Political Economy, Vol 59(21), 66-71.

Salih M & Wohlgemuth(1994) Somalia: State and Society in Turmoil: Review of African Political Economy, Vol 59(21) 79-82.

Electronic:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia#The_Battle_of_Ras_Kamboni [accessed 6.04.08]

http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1072592.stm [accessed on 6.04.08]

http://www.iss.co.za/AF/profiles/Somalia/Politics.html [accessed 5.04.08]

http://www.doollo.com/mainpage/Axmed/olole.htm [accessed on 6.04.08]